PFASt and Furious: A Targeted and Non-Targeted LC-MS/MS Study on the Environmental Impact of Using Fluorinated Ski Waxes

Importance of the Topic

The persistence and widespread use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in ski wax formulations raise significant environmental and health concerns. Despite regulatory shifts to phase out PFAS in wax manufacture, these compounds continue to accumulate in alpine ecosystems. Assessing PFAS contamination around high-use ski competition areas is critical for understanding pollutant pathways, informing remediation strategies and guiding safer product development.

Study Objectives and Overview

This investigation combined targeted tandem quadrupole LC-MS/MS and non-targeted high-resolution mass spectrometry with ion mobility (cIMS-HRMS) to:

• Quantify known PFAS in water and soil at a downhill slalom course and a cross-country ski track.
• Screen for unexpected or novel PFAS species using non-targeted analysis.
• Compare contamination patterns between application zones and downstream sampling sites.

Applied Methodology and Instrumentation

Sample Preparation and Cleanup:

• Water and soil collected along designated points on both ski courses following EPA Method 1633A.
• Automated pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) for soil (<10 min per sample).
• SPE cleanup with Oasis WAX/GCB cartridges on an automated platform; high-capacity inline filtration to remove particulates.

Used Instrumentation:

• LC System: ACQUITY I-Class Plus UPLC with PFAS Analysis Kit.
• Isolator Column: Atlantis Premier BEH C18 AX (2.1 × 50 mm, 2.5 µm).
• Analytical Column: Atlantis Premier BEH C18 A X (2.1 × 100 mm, 1.7 µm).
• Mobile Phases: Water + 2 mM ammonium acetate (A); Methanol + 0.1% ammonium hydroxide (B).
• MS Systems:
  
  • SELECT SERIES Cyclic IMS QTOF (ESI, DIA HDMSE, resolution ~60 000, ion mobility ~65 Ω/ΔΩ).
  • Xevo TQ-Absolute triple-quadrupole (ESI, MRM acquisition).

Results and Discussion

• PFAS were detected in all soil samples and some water samples at both slalom and cross-country sites, with soil concentrations up to several thousand parts per trillion (ppt), indicating stronger sorption in solids.
• Long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids predominated, consistent with their use in ski waxes.
• At the slalom slope, PFAS concentrations decreased progressively with distance downslope, mirroring wax abrasion patterns.
• On the cross-country track, highest levels appeared at waxing and testing areas; contamination extended into adjacent ponds and an on-site vegetable garden (notably 3533 ng/kg PFOS), suggesting migration via snowmelt runoff.
• Non-targeted HRMS screening revealed additional long-chain PFAS (up to C16), dioic perfluorinated acids and monohydrogen-substituted perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids not covered by routine targeted assays.

Benefits and Practical Applications of the Method

This combined targeted/non-targeted LC-MS approach:

• Provides comprehensive PFAS profiling in complex environmental matrices.
• Enables detection of legacy and emerging compounds to support risk assessment.
• Facilitates monitoring of contamination hotspots near wax application zones.
• Supports regulatory compliance and guides formulation changes for lower-impact wax products.

Future Trends and Opportunities for Application

• Integration of high-throughput non-targeted workflows with advanced data processing to rapidly identify novel PFAS families.
• Refinement of ion mobility filtering for enhanced separation of isomeric PFAS species in environmental samples.
• Development of in-field screening tools and passive samplers for real-time monitoring of ski area runoff.
• Application of these methods to additional winter sports venues and downstream ecosystems to map broader PFAS transport.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates significant PFAS contamination arising from fluorinated ski wax use at competitive skiing sites. Soil matrices retained the highest levels, with spatial patterns reflecting wax application and runoff pathways. Non-targeted HRMS identified additional long-chain PFAS, underscoring the need for broad screening strategies. These findings inform environmental management and next-generation wax formulation.

References

1. US Environmental Protection Agency. Analysis of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Aqueous, Solid, Biosolids, and Tissue Samples by LC-MS/MS. January 2024.
2. Dowd SE, Organtini KL, Carlan J, Dorman FL. Non-Targeted Analysis of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Environmental Samples Related to Alpine Skiing Using Ion Mobility Filtering and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. ACS Environ. Au. 2025.